From Progress in
New Crops, Proceedings of the Third National Symposium NEW CROPS: New
Opportunities, New Technologies
by Lawrence T. McHargue
Macadamia Production in Southern California
1. ADVANTAGES
2. PROBLEMS
3. INDUSTRY REQUIREMENTS
1. Cultivars
2. Cultivation Practices
3. Harvesting and Handling
4. Publicity and Marketing
4. CONCLUSION
5. REFERENCES
The genus Macadamia, a member of the Proteaceae, is native to eastern Australia. Two Macadamia species produce edible seeds (Macadamia integrifolia Maiden & Betche and M. tetraphylla L.A.S. Johnson). Macadamia integrifolia is native to the rainforests of southeastern Queensland, and M. tetraphylla occurs farther south in the rainforests of New South Wales. Macadamia integrifolia is more tolerant of temperature extremes than M. tetraphylla. The flowers are borne in pendulous racemes. Flower color ranges from white to cream in M. integrifolia and cream to beige in M. tetraphylla. Hybrid flower colors range from cream to pink. Both species are insect pollinated. Bee pollination is normal in California.
William
Purvis introduced the first macadamias into Hawaii in 1881, though the
major development of the Hawaiian macadamia industry occurred after
1930 (Cooper 1988). At one time it produced 90% of the world's supply.
Annual macadamia nut production ranged from 21,400 to 22,550 t during
the five year period of 1989 to 1994. Approximately 7,100-7,500 ha of
macadamia plantings were harvested during the same period (USDA 1993;
Rowley et al. 1994). Most Hawaiian macadamia production is from Macadamia integrifolia
derived cultivars. The University of Hawaii and Hawaiian macadamia
growers have actively engaged in research in macadamia cultivation and
in the selection of improved macadamia cultivars. The Hawaiian industry
has been diligent and aggressive in marketing and sales.
Hawaiian
dominance of world production is currently being challenged. Australian
plantings and production have expanded dramatically during the past 30
years. There are currently 20,000 ha devoted to macadamia plantings.
One third of the area planted to macadamias is mature, another one
third is in the early bearing stage, and another third is not yet
bearing. Approximately 30% of world production now comes from
Australia, and the Australian Macadamia Society projects that Australia
will double its percentage of world production within five years
(Stapleton 1995). Australian production increased from 4,400 t in 1987
to 21,000 t in 1995. Commercial plantings in Australia were initially
based on Macadamia integrifolia
cultivars developed in Hawaii, but newer selections from Australia are
now coming into production. Australia currently has the world's largest
macadamia research and selection program, and their industry is
actively seeking new and expanded markets.
Macadamia orchards
have also been established in Central America, Brazil, Kenya,
Indonesia, Taiwan, and southern Africa (Arpaia 1994). Processed nuts
grown in Guatemala are being marketed in the United States by one of
the larger Hawaiian macadamia producers and processors. However the
total world production of macadamia nuts is quite small, and it
constitutes less than 0.5% of the total world nut sales (Stapleton
1995).
Macadamia seeds were first brought to California from
Australia in 1879 (Ferguson and Arpaia 1990). A number of seedlings
were successfully grown in southern California subsequent to that
introduction, though Wickson (1910) made no reference to macadamias.
There was some interest in Pasadena and Whittier in the 1920s, and a
few relic trees from that time remained for decades. I examined one of
the early seedling trees and its nuts in the 1950s. However, little
interest was shown in commercial macadamia cultivation until the 1950s
when several nurserymen began to promote macadamia growing and
production. One of these was Cliff Tanner who propagated a number of
tropical and subtropical fruits and nuts in addition to the macadamia.
Another was Colonel Wells Miller. Macadamia enthusiasts formed the
California Macadamia Society in 1953. The Gold Crown Macadamia
Association has marketed California grown macadamias for its member
growers for over two decades. Macadamia production has not attained the
status of an economically important crop in California, despite efforts
made by individuals to develop production. Most of the population of
the region appears to be unaware that there is any commercial macadamia
production in Southern California. Hawaiian and Central American
produced nuts dominate the southern California market despite the fact
that substantial macadamia production is possible there.
Macadamia trees grow
successfully at a number of points in California. Macadamia climatic
requirements are similar to Mexican or Guatemalan races of the avocado.
Macadamia trees are intolerant of heavy frost. Frost damage begins to
occur at -2.8°C (27°F), especially if the period of low temperatures
lasts for several hours. Macadamia trees are also intolerant of
prolonged periods of high temperatures and low humidity, and this
precludes commercial macadamia production in the thermal belts of the
San Joaquin Valley or in relatively frost-areas of the Sonoran Desert.
Commercial production of macadamias is therefore located in San Diego,
Ventura, and Santa Barbara Counties. Climatic conditions are also
suitable in Orange and Los Angeles Counties, but those counties are now
so intensively urbanized that there is little or no potential land area
left for macadamia cultivation. Neither production volumes nor the land
area devoted to macadamia production in California are available. There
were an estimated 600-800 ha of macadamia plantings in 1988 (Cooper
1988). Long (1988) estimated that there were about 400 ha in San Diego
County. It appears that the area devoted to macadamia production has
probably declined, but there are no accurate figures to indicate how
much. Many of the producing trees have been planted to replace avocado
trees that have been infected by avocado root rot (Phytophthora cinnamomi).
Accurate estimates on the land area occupied by macadamia trees that
are scattered through avocado groves are not available. Other producing
trees have been planted on small plots of land around homes or on the
edges of avocado or citrus groves. No one has determined the extent of
area planted in macadamias in this manner, yet there is commercial
production from these plantings.
ADVANTAGES
Most cultivars grown in California are derived from Macadamia tetraphylla or M. tetraphylla x integrifolia hybrids (Ferguson and Arpaia 1990). Macadamia tetraphylla is less tolerant of temperature extremes than M. integrifolia.
Its requirement for very even temperatures (7deg. to 26deg.C) limits
its productivity and geographic range. Hybrid cultivars have generally
been more productive in California than those derived from M. integrifolia, though the 'James' is an exception. Macadamia integrifolia
cultivars usually bloom in mid-winter in California. Flower production
and pollination are low in cold years resulting in poor yields. Hybrid
cultivars usually bloom during the spring when the weather is more
moderate and pollination is more certain. They are more tolerant of
temperature extremes than Macadamia tetraphylla, and are well suited to the coastal climate of southern California (Cooper 1988).
The flavor of cultivars derived from the two Macadamia species differs perceptibly. Macadamia tetraphylla cultivars produce nuts with a high carbohydrate content, sweeter flavor, and a lower oil content than those from M. integrifolia, though they are more difficult to process and stabilize for shipping and storage. The high oil content of M. integrifolia gives it an advantage over M. tetraphylla
for roasting and salting (Stapleton 1995). Subtle but real differences
in flavor between the two groups of cultivars offer a particular niche
to California growers, for macadamia production in Hawaii and Australia
is primarily from M. integrifolia cultivars. The sweetness of fresh macadamia nuts from the M. tetraphylla x integrifolia
hybrids usually grown in California makes it unnecessary to salt them,
though a few growers roast and salt nuts in the same manner that
Hawaiian or Central American producers do. The flavor of California
produced macadamias is excellent, and it is a major advantage for
growers. The sweetness of California grown macadamias is well suited
for various confections. The flavors of candies and other confections
made from California nuts are somewhat different from similar products
from Hawaii. Frieda's Inc. of Los Alamitos, California buys all of the
macadamia nuts included in their products from California sources. Most
of the sales volume of California macadamias is repeat business.
Present
and potential macadamia production areas in California are both scenic
and readily accessible to the large urban populations of Southern
California. Direct marketing can be done by growers. People can easily
visit macadamia orchards and purchase nuts directly from a grower as
they do with a number of other fruits and nuts. Macadamias are
popularly perceived as an exotic specialty crop. They therefore have a
certain built-in appeal to some segments of the southern California
population.
The proximity of production and markets obviate the
need to package and preserve California grown nut meats in the same
manner as Hawaiian and Central American producers do for their sales to
distant markets. High temperatures or prolonged roasting alters the
flavor of the nuts. There is a market for both fresh and packaged nuts,
and California growers have an advantage in marketing the former,
especially in California and the Southwest. The proximity of production
and marketing also permits California growers to market unshelled
macadamia nuts to the public more economically than growers located in
distant regions. The hardness of macadamia shells requires specially
designed and built nutcrackers. There is a certain risk involved in
unshelled nut sales, for some nuts are always defective. The purchase
of shelled nuts permits the processor to eliminate defective nuts and
the customer to observe the quality of the nuts being purchased. The
unit price of the nut meats is thus similar in shelled and unshelled
nuts.
Macadamia trees in California suffer from fewer diseases and pests than
most other crops. They are not particularly susceptible to the oak wilt
fungus that has devastated many avocado orchards in southern California.
PROBLEMS
Land
is expensive and will become increasingly so as urbanization occurs in
those areas best suited for macadamia cultivation. Agricultural land
area is being lost due to rapid urbanization, and the average size of
all land holdings, including agricultural acreage, is declining. The
cost of the labor needed to produce macadamia nuts is higher in
California than in other areas. Productivity in yields and in return
must therefore be quite high to compete successfully with production in
other areas of the world. The cost of irrigation water has risen
steadily, and it can be expected to increase even more with increasing
competition between urban and rural areas of California for finite
supplies.
The high cost of macadamia production dictates high
retail prices. Current retail macadamia prices are $6.60 to 8.80/kg($3
to 4/lb) for nuts in the shell, and $30.80/kg ($14.00/lb) for shelled
nuts.
INDUSTRY REQUIREMENTS
There
are four principal areas of need if macadamia production is to expand
and be profitable in California: improved cultivars, continued progress
in cultivation practices, improvements in nut harvesting and handling,
and major improvements in publicity and marketing. It is my opinion
that there is a potential for increased output and profitability for
macadamia production in California. However, that potential will not be
realized without a major expenditure of time and effort on the part of
those involved in macadamia production and marketing.
Cultivars
Growers
and nurserymen must make efforts to improve the quality of the
cultivars being grown in California (Cooper 1992). Efforts to select
for better and higher yielding cultivars have not been adequate, and
there has been no comprehensive program to develop new cultivars
(Ferguson and Arpaia 1990). California growers have strong and
divergent opinions regarding the desirability of different cultivars.
Plant breeders and growers must explore as much genetic diversity as
possible from which to select and recombine favorable traits through
plant breeding. New and existing cultivars from other areas of the
world should be tested in our climate. Macadamia growers and existing
nurseries need to make efforts to improve macadamias and cooperate with
a state or federal program. The experiment stations of the University
of California should initiate a program of macadamia improvement
because this is a long term program that requires public support.
Louise Ferguson, of the University of California, Davis and the
experiment station at Parlier, stated in a telephone conversation on 24
Jan. 1996, that financial support from the macadamia industry is
essential for the establishment of such a program.
More
information is needed regarding rootstocks because soils in California
are highly variable. Clay soils slow the time needed to reach maturity,
though the slower growth of the root system results in trees having
firmer anchorage. Selections should also be made for cold hardiness.
Recently 'Cynthia' has been used as a rootstock for cold resistance
(Cooper 1992).
Cultivation Practices
Continued
work needs to be done in cultivation practices and methods of
propagation. The Mediterranean climate and soils of southern California
differ significantly from those of other macadamia producing areas.
These differences are reflected in the dominance of Macadamia tetraphylla x integrifolia
hybrid cultivars in California. A research program is needed to
ascertain optimum and the most economical cultivation practices.
Harvesting and Handling
Opinions
differ regarding the best methods of harvesting. Some growers wait
until the nuts drop from the tree while others harvest the nuts from
the tree itself. Studies should be undertaken to ascertain differences
between harvesting methods in nut quality and efficiency.
Technology
used in other crops has been applied to macadamia handling and
processing, and some of the machinery being used has been developed by
individual growers. Mechanized processing equipment is available from
firms, such as the R.P. Barton Co. of Escalon, California; Shaw
Macadamia of Gooding, Idaho; or Keiser Manufacturing Co. of Sequin,
Texas. However most their equipment is designed to handle large
quantities of product, and the equipment is costly. There is a largely
unfilled need for small scale harvesting and handling equipment. More
and innovative thought is needed to increase efficiency in harvesting,
processing, and handling the product.
Publicity and Marketing
There
is an acute need for more effective marketing and publicity regarding
macadamia production in California. California growers should not
simply sell their macadamia crop to brokers who sell the nuts in a
world market dominated by cheaper nuts from areas having lower
production costs. California produced macadamia nuts will inevitably be
unprofitable, even if nut wholesalers would be willing tto pay a
somewhat higher price for them. Wholesaler brokers alone will not and
cannot pay a sufficiently high price to bring prosperity to the
macadamia industry. Teeter (1993) presented a gloomy analysis of the
costs of macadamia production in southern California.
California
macadamia nuts cannot compete against other, cheaper nuts if they are
marketed and consumed in exactly the same manner as nuts from Central
America, Australia, and Hawaii. California growers and marketers must
emphasize the different flavors and texture of their product as a niche
market if they are to build a successful industry. Growers should
emphasize the different flavor of freshly roasted, unsalted nuts. Their
product must be perceived as being equal to and somewhat different from
the best macadamia nuts grown in other areas, and that perception must
be based on reality. The economics of production demand that California
grown nuts sell at higher prices than nuts grown in other areas.
Macadamia
growers must play the dominant role in marketing and publicizing their
crop. They produce a specialty crop that is rightly considered to be a
gourmet food. Growers should sell as many nuts and macadamia products
as possible themselves. More direct marketing and dealing with fewer
handlers between grower and producer will bring higher prices to the
grower and more affordable prices for the consumer. Several growers
sell nuts and confections directly to the public. More direct marketing
efforts are needed. Growers should cater to tourism as the date
industry has done in the Coachella Valley or the apple growers have
done in Oak Glen. More publicity is needed to acquaint the public with
the existence of macadamia growing and macadamia products in California.
Individual
outlets for nuts and nut products will probably not be sufficient to
sell all the crop, especially if production increases substantially.
Growers should deal individually or collectively with specialty food
stores such as Farmers Market, Bristol Farms, Trader Joe's, and others
who already sell processed nuts from other areas of the world to an
affluent and specialty oriented clientele. These firms sell specialty
candies and baked goods, and these would be possible outlets for nuts
and nut parts. The Gold Crown cooperative currently sells to Frieda's
Inc. of Los Alamitos California. Similar marketing arrangements should
be sought out by growers. Those involved in macadamia production and
marketing should also make efforts to have macadamia nuts or products
incorporated into the style of cooking known as "California cuisine."
CONCLUSION
California
macadamia growers have both major advantages and disadvantages that
confront their industry. They must engage in a major, collective effort
if the industry is to expand and be profitable. Decisive leadership and
consensus regarding goals for the industry are needed. Those in the
macadamia industry must expand their efforts in promotion and
marketing. More studies and quantitative data regarding production and
marketing are necessary. Thompson Cooper (Internet:
74561.261@CompuServe.com) is currently working to establish an on-line
data base for the industry. A long term University of California
research program should be undertaken. More knowledge of cultivation
practices, better yielding cultivars, and increased marketing efforts
are all prerequisites for increased macadamia production and
profitability in California.
REFERENCES
• Arpaia, M.L. 1994. Macadamia situation for selected countries. California Macadamia Soc. Yearb. 40:27-30.
• Cooper, T.H. 1988. Macadamia: a basic understanding. California Macadamia Soc. Yearb. 34:100-104.
• Cooper, T.H. 1992. California macadamia tree varieties report. The Macadamia Nut Grower Quart. 7(3):1-7.
•
Ferguson, L. and M.L. Arpaia. 1990. New subtropical tree crops in
California. p. 331-337 In: J. Janick and J.E. Simon (eds.), Advances in
new crops. Timber Press, Portland, OR.
• Rowley, H.K., D.A. Martin,
and R. Wong. 1994. Hawaii macadamia nuts. Final season estimates.
California Macadamia Soc. Yearb. 40:114-121.
• Stapleton, A. 1995.
Australian macadamia industry. Home page of the Australian Macadamia
Society. (andrew@nor.com.au) Lismore, New South Wales.
• Teeter, J. 1993. Is it worth it? California Macadamia Soc. Yearb. 39:98-105.
• U.S. Department of Agriculture. 1993. Agricultural statistics. Government Printing Office, Washington, DC.
• Wickson, E.J. 1910. The California fruits and how to grow them. Pacific Rural Press, San Francisco.
Last update June 23, 1997 aw
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