Sugarcane, Saccharum officinarum

Sugarcane - Saccharum officinarum

Fig. 1

Sugarcane and bowl of refined sugar

Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum, Orange, California, USA

Fig. 2

Leaves

Sugarcane flowers, which produce seeds, are pictured in this November 2001 photo. Because seeds from a single sugarcane flower differ genetically, pieces of sugarcane stalk are planted, rather than seeds, to produce new plants that are genetically identical to the parent plant

Fig. 3

Sugarcane flowers, which produce seeds. Because seeds from a single sugarcane flower differ genetically, pieces of sugarcane stalk are planted, rather than seeds, to produce new plants that are genetically identical to the parent plant.

Poaceae (formerly and, also known as Gramineae; grass family). Saccharum officinarum. Thane, India

Poaceae (formerly and, also known as Gramineae; grass family). Saccharum officinarum. Thane, India

Fig. 4

S. officinarum, India

Lower leaves removed revealing the segmented stalks

Fig. 5

Lower leaves removed revealing the segmented stalks

Internode and nodes

Fig. 6

Internode and nodes:
A, node and internode;
B, tall root band with many rows of root primordia;
C, narrow constricted root band;
D, eonoidal root band;
E, obeonoidal root band with bud projecting above growth ring

Buds

Fig. 14

Fig. 28

Sugarcane stool

CP 78-1628 stool

Fig. 29
CP 78-1628 stool

Credit: © Forest and Kim Starr, Starr Environmental

Fig. 30

Hawai'ian variety Iliopua with Kim and Tamara, Maui Nui Botanical Garden Kahului, Maui, Hawai'i

Sugarcane/energy cane seedlings

Fig. 31

Sugarcane/energy cane field

Sugarcane field in Belle Glade, Florida

Fig. 32

Sugarcane field, Belle Glade, Florida

Sugarcane/energy cane field

Fig. 33

Sugarcane/energy cane field

An aerial view of commercial sugarcane fields near Belle Glade, FL, June 2008. In the foreground are variety test plots managed by sugarcane growers for the purpose of evaluating promising germplasm lines, a process required for the release of new cultivars

An aerial view of commercial sugarcane fields near Belle Glade, FL, June 2008. In the foreground are variety test plots managed by sugarcane growers for the purpose of evaluating promising germplasm lines, a process required for the release of new cultivars

Fig. 34

An aerial view of commercial sugarcane fields, Belle Glade, Florida. In the foreground are variety test plots managed by sugarcane growers for the purpose of evaluating promising germplasm lines, a process required for the release of new cultivars.

Cattle Egrets (Bubulcus ibis) forage for insects and soil grubs during a pause in a sugarcane harvest operation in fields west of Clewiston, FL, December 2005

Fig. 35

Cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis) forage for insects and soil grubs during a pause in a sugarcane harvest operation in fields west of Clewiston, Florida.

Rails-track-boxcar-wagon

Fig. 38

Fig. 39

Raw sugar being stored before refining

Fig. 40

Sugarcane juice stall

sugar-cane-man-machine-punjab

Fig. 41

Sugarcane man, India

cuba-vinales-sugar-cane-press-sugar

Fig. 42

Sugarcane press, Cuba

Molasses made from the sugarcane juice of the village

Fig. 43

Molasses made from the sugarcane juice of the village

Hawaii-kauai-sugar-mill-abandoned

Fig. 44

Abandoned sugar mill, Hawai'i

Sugarcane on the bridge over Jinjiang River - Hebin Road to Wangjiang Road - Chengdu, Sichuan, China

Fig. 45

Sugarcane on the bridge over Jinjiang River, China

A float in the Aringay Festival depicting a giant basi (tapayan), Philippines

Fig. 46

A float in the Aringay Festival depicting a giant basi (tapayan), Philippines

Candy Cane Crystals

Fig. 47
Candy

Scientific name
Saccharum officinarum L.
Common names
English: noble sugarcane, sugarcane, sugar cane; Arabic: qasab el-sokkar; French: canne à sucre; German: Zukerrohr; Hawai'ian: Ko; Japanese Romaji: sato-kibi; Portuguese: cana-de-açúcar; Portuguese (Brazil): cana; Spanish: caña de azúcar, caña dulce; Swedish: sockerrör; transcribed Korean: satangsusu⁸
Synonyms
Family
Poaceae/Gramineae (grass family)
Uses
Food and drink; varied uses for by-products
Height
4-12 ft (1.2-3.5 m)⁶
Plant habit
Tropical perennial grass
Growth rate
Rapid
Life cycle/span
Multi-year crop¹
Stem diameter
0.75-2 in. (2-5 cm)⁶
Node spacing
4-10 in. (10-25 cm)⁶
Leaf blade
Very long and narrow; length: 5 ft (1.5 m) or more; width: 1-3 in. ( 2.5-8 cm)⁶
Inflorescence
Open-branched panicle⁵
Season
Typically Oct. through May; tropical countries: near continuous⁶
Days to harvest
About 12-14 months after planting, 11-12 months from a ratoon re-growth
pH preference
5.5-6.5¹
Spacing
Row: 6 ft (1.8 m)
Light requirement
Sun
Flood tolerance
Well drained¹
Temperature requirement
70-95 °F (21-35 °C)¹
Invasive potential *
Low invasion risk
Pest resistance
Sugarcane varieties are bred to be resistant to common plant diseases¹
Known hazard
Leaves have razor- sharp edges

Reading Material
Sugarcane Botany: A Brief View, University of Florida^pdfSugar Cane on The Run, Eat The Weeds
Sugarcane Handbook, University of Florida^ext.
link
An Overview of Florida Sugarcane, University of Florida^{pdf (archived)}
Backyard Sugarcane, University of Florida^{pdf (archived)}

Origin
Several species of Saccharum are found in Southeast Asia and neighboring islands, and from these cultivated cane probably originated. The sweet juice and crystallized sugar were known in China and India some 2500 years ago. Sugar cane reached the Mediterranean countries in the eighth century A.D., and reached the Americas in early colonial times.
Florida, Louisiana, and Texas are the only areas in the United States where sugarcane is grown commercially. ⁶

Description
Sugarcane (Saccharum interspecific hybrids) is the main source of sugar in the world. It is grown in more than 90 countries in tropical and subtropical regions. Cultivation techniques and production challenges vary by location. ²
Although sugarcane can be grown throughout Florida, it is only produced commercially around the southern end of Lake Okeechobee. Currently, the entire crop (396,528 acres) is used for the production of table sugar.³
There are basically three types of sugarcane grown for the production of syrup, crystals or chewing.


Fig. 7	Fig. 8	Fig. 9	Fig. 10

Fig. 7. Types of internode
Fig. 8. Blade joint and sheath base: A, Detailed structure of blade joint, showing location of the various hair groups; B, structure of sheath base, showing location of hair groups
Fig. 9. Hair groups on prophyll: A, anterior side; B, posterior side
Fig. 10. Sheath base and surface view of sheath, showing location of hair groups

The Biology of the Saccharum spp. (Sugarcane), Australian Government^pdf

Leaves
Avoid planting sugarcane along the edges of high-traffic sidewalks or pathways. Sharp-edged sugarcane leaves can injure pedestrians. Keep in mind, too, that some sugarcane varieties are prone to fall over (lodge).¹


Fig. 11	Fig. 11a

Fig. 11. Sharp edges
Fig. 11a. Magnified

Flowers
For commercial sugarcane production, inflorescence development is of little economic importance in Florida.
Varieties throughout the world are actually different versions of a multi-species hybrid. For this reason, variety characteristics are not genetically captured in sugarcane seeds, and sugarcane does not breed true from seeds.¹
Generally, a day length close to 12.5 hours and night temperatures between 68 and 77 degrees F will induce floral initiation. Temperatures that are too low and/or water stress inhibit inflorescence development.⁵


Fig. 12	Fig. 13

Fig. 12. With tassles, Haliimaile, Maui

Types
1. Syrup Canes contain less sucrose than crystal canes, but have additional kinds of sugar molecules that are not as readily crystallized, so when the juice is concentrated into syrup, there is a lower likelihood of crystallization as compared with a crystal or commercial cane. CP36-111; CP52-48; CP67-500; Louisiana Ribbon; Louisiana Purple; Louisiana Striped; POJ2878; Cayana; POJ 213; Green German; CP29-116.
2. Crystal Canes (typically commercial varieties) must contain a high percentage of sucrose since this is the sugar molecule that easily forms into crystals when concentrated during a heating and evaporation process.
2. Chewing Canes are generally softer and contain fibers that stick together when chewed, making it easier to spit out the pulp once the sugary juice has been consumed. Many chewing canes are also used for syrup production. Yellow Gal (F31-407); CP57-603; NG57-258; White Transparent; Georgia Red; CP31-511; Home Green.
Many old-named sugarcane varieties are still available, but often only from local sources, having been preserved by farmers or hobbyists.¹

Hawai'ian Cultivars


Fig. 15	Fig. 16	Fig. 17	Fig. 18	Fig. 19


	Fig. 20	Fig. 21

Fig. 15. 'Pilimai', Hawea Pl Olinda, Maui
Fig. 16. 'Pilimai', Maui Nui Botanical Garden Kahului, Maui
Fig. 17. 'Honuaula', dark red stems, Maui Nui Botanical Garden
Fig. 18,19. 'Iliopua', yellow green stems good for sugar chewing
Fig. 20. 'Pakaweli', Hawea Pl Olinda
Fig. 21. 'Kea', Maui Nui Botanical Garden Kahului

Sugarcane Cultivar Descriptive Fact Sheets, University of Florida ^{ext. link}
Florida Sugarcane Cultivar Fact Sheets, University of Florida ^{ext. link}

Ripening
The storage of sucrose in the stalk is known as ripening. Ripening is a joint to joint process, and the degree of maturity of the individual joints depends on their age. In young plants, the sucrose content exhibits a distinct maximum that is located approximately at soil level. The sucrose content in these plants decreases through the stalk toward the top of the stalk. As the plant matures, a more uniform sucrose content is found throughout the stalk except for the top few internodes and the below-ground stool.⁵

Harvesting and Processing
Sugar yields generally increase as the weather turns cooler.
Using a sharp knife or lopping shears, cut the mature stalks as close to the ground as possible. The root end of the cane is the richest in sugar.
Trim off the green, upper portion of the stalk that lacks sugar-accumulating nodes. Next, either squeeze/crush the stalks for juice collection or cut the stalks into smaller pieces for chewing enjoyment.
Following harvest, sugarcane re-sprouts from underground buds located on basal (bottom or lower) portions of old stalks. This process is called ”ratooning”.^1,6

Maturity Curves and Harvest Schedule Recommendations for CP Sugarcane Varieties, University of Florida ^pdf
Maturity Curves and Harvest Schedules for Specific Cultivars, University of Florida ^{ext. link}

Video:^1:24

How do you get sugar from sugar cane?^v1


Video:^1:36Growing and processing^v2	Video:^1:06Sugar cane harvest^v3

Propagation
At each node is a potential growing point - the bud or “bud-eye”. On adjacent nodes buds are located on opposite sides of the stalk.
Vegetatively: a section of a mature cane stalk (a "seed-cane") with one or more buds (or "bud-eyes").
Cut each stalk into 2 - 3 foot sections (“seed-pieces” or “billets”). To ensure that a few buds survive the stresses of the planting environment, aim for seed-pieces that have around six buds. Keep in mind that cutting long stalks into shorter seed-pieces actually improves bud germination along the shorter seed-piece.
Planting whole stalks is not recommended because of “apical dominance,” a process in which buds closest to the cut ends tend to get activated while interior buds might not get activated. Single-node pieces (Fig. 23), which contain a single bud, can be planted in pots or trays and later transplanted at the target site.¹


Fig. 22	Fig. 23	Fig. 24

Fig. 22. Maui Nui Botanical Garden, Hawai'i
Fig. 23,24. A single-node section propagated in a pot

Sugarcane Eye Propagation in northern Florida, Florida State Horticulture Society

Storing Planting Material
Freshly cut stalks can be stored under cool, moist conditions for two weeks prior to planting. For storage longer than two weeks, dipping the seed-piece ends in hot paraffin will help protect the inner stalk from drying out. Shorter lengths of stalk can be stored in a plastic bag in a refrigerator whose temperature doesn't drop below freezing. Longer stalks can be “stored” (buried) in the ground to over-winter, followed by planting in the spring in the desired location.¹

Planting
While the stool typically gets bigger over time, the combined effects of winter and mechanical damage lead to declining basal-bud viability. Eventually, stalk production declines, so expect to replant every 5 - 10 years for good ratooning varieties. Keep in mind, however, that some sugarcane varieties are infamous for their inability to “ratoon;” such varieties have to be replanted more often.
Cut stalks into 2-3 ft (0.5-1 m) lengths, with about six buds.
Dig furrows about 3-7 in. (8-17.8 cm) deep for loam/clay-loam soil; slightly deeper in sand and highly organic soil.
Cover the seed cane with loosely packed soil to a depth of 2-5 in. (5-13 cm). It does not matter whether buds along the stalk are positioned downwards; the emerging shoot will naturally make its way to the surface.
As the shoots elongate, gradually add soil to the furrow until the furrow becomes slightly elevated.
In many countries, vegetable and/or nitrogen-fixing leguminous crops are planted between the rows of newly planted sugarcane.¹


Fig. 25	Fig. 26	Fig. 27

Fig. 25. Sugarcane stalks in a furrow before being covered with soil
Fig. 26. Hawai'ian varieties ready to plant, Oliopua Pakaweli Pilimai Honuaula
Fig. 27. Cultivar "CPCL 97-2730" at early growth in sandy soil

Sugarcane - Planting, University of Florida

Fertilizing
Nutritional Requirements for Florida Sugarcane, University of Florida^pdf

Irrigation
The early growth period of sugarcane is particularly sensitive to excessive moisture. Keep the soil slightly moist, but not wet. Within 1-to-3 weeks, depending on soil temperatures, new shoots should emerge through the soil. After excessive rainfall water can be pumped out of fields, however, once the shoots have reached 6 - 8 inches tall they can tolerate short periods of standing water.^1,4

Pests/Diseases/Weeds
Wireworms and grubs, a stalk borer, mealy bugs, termites and aphids. Many pests are adequately controlled by natural predators, parasites, and/or changing seasonal conditions. Sugarcane growth is so rapid that the plant can typically tolerate considerable insect infestation and still produce a satisfactory crop. ¹
Rodents and rabbits are often the most serious pests that backyard sugarcane enthusiasts encounter. To some extent, these large pests can be managed by installing physical barriers.¹
Florida Crop/Pest Profile: Sugarcane, University of Florida^pdf
Abundance of Soil Insect Pests in Florida Sugarcane, University of Florida^pdf
Insect Management in Sugarcane, University of Florida ^pdf
Sugarcane Weeds (Sugarcane Handbook), University of Florida ^ext.
link

Culture in Other Countries


Fig. 36	Fig. 37

Fig. 36. Harvest with bullocks and carts, India
Fig. 37. Harvested by women, Vietnam

Food Uses
Refined sugar, raw sugar, molasses, alcohol, rum, yeast, syrups, dextran, confectionary, crude wax, and glucose.⁷
Basi (Fig. 46) is the local beverage of Ilocos in northern Luzon in San Ildefonso where it has been consumed since before the Spanish conquest. In the Philippines, commercial basi is produced by first crushing sugarcane and extracting the juice. The juice is boiled in vats and then stored in earthen jars (tapayan). Once the juice has cooled, flavorings made of ground glutinous rice and duhat (java plum) bark or other fruits or barks is added. The jars are then sealed with banana leaves and allowed to ferment for several years. The resulting drink is pale red in color. If fermented longer, it turns into suka or vinegar.


Fig. 48	Fig. 49	Fig. 50


Fig. 51	Fig. 52	Fig. 53


Fig. 54	Fig. 55	Fig. 56	57	Fig. 58

Fig. 48. Brown sugar
Fig. 49. Jaggery, தமிழ்: கரும்பு வெல்லம்
Fig. 50. Nicely peeled and cut sugarcane, packed in transparent polythene, Ghana
Fig. 51. Sugar lumps
Fig. 52. Sugar cane pieces
Fig. 53. Organically produced blackstrap molasses, Paraguay
Fig. 54. Sugar cane/juice, Ecuador
Fig. 55. Sirup vom Sirupier de Berne
Fig. 56. Several brands of cachaça (distilled spirit made from fermented sugarcane juice)
Fig. 57. Bottled sugarcane juice
Fig. 58. Sugarcane juice is the juice extracted from pressed sugarcane, it is served, often cold, and sometimes with other ingredients such as a squeeze of lemon or lime, pineapple, passionfruit, ginger or ice
Types of Sugar, The Sugar Association^pdf

Nutritional Value

Ingredients: Sugarcane Juice, Citric Acid (0.01%)

Name	Amount	Unit
Energy	49	kcal
Protein	0	g
Total lipid (fat)	0	g
Carbohydrate, by difference	11.51	g
Fiber, total dietary	0	g
Sugars, total including NLEA	8.55	g
Calcium, Ca	10	mg
Iron, Fe	0.18	mg
Magnesium, Mg	12	mg
Potassium, K	160	mg
Sodium, Na	0	mg
Thiamin	0	mg
Fatty acids, total saturated	0	g
Fatty acids, total trans	0	g
Cholesterol	0	mg

100 ml (3.38 fl oz) portion ¹⁰

Medicinal **
Reported to be antidote, antiseptic, antivinous, bactericide, cardiotonic, demulcent, diuretic, intoxicant, laxative, pectoral, piscicide, refrigerant, and stomachic. It is a folk remedy for arthritis, bedsores, boils, cancer, colds, cough, diarrhea, dysentery, eyes, fever, hiccups, inflammation, laryngitis, opacity, skin, sores, sore throat, spleen, tumors, and wounds.⁹

Other Uses
Bagasse: paper, particleboard, animal feed, particleboard, ethanol, steam/electricity, bio-sorbant. Ash: plant nutrients/fertilizer. Wax: pharmaceutical, cosmetics; ethanol, garden mulch.
Eco friendly plates, bowls, takeout containers and other packaging products are produced with sugarcane fiber in Florida.⁷

Dual-fuel gas station at Sao Paulo, Brazil. Alcohol (ethanol) and gasoline

Fig. 59

Fig. 59. Dual-fuel gas station, alcohol (ethanol) and gasoline, Brazil

Byproducts of sugar production, Dept. Health, Australian Gov't.
Production of Biofuel Crops in Florida: Sugarcane/Energy Cane, University of Florida^pdf
Diversified Use of Byproducts of Sugarcane and Cotton - A Review, International Journal of Current Microbiology and Applied Sciences^pdf

General

Occurrence of Saccharum L. in the United States

Fig. 60

Fig. 60. Occurrence of Saccharum L. in the United States, indicated by green areas of map

Further Reading
Florida Sugar Cane League ^ext
link
Saccharum officinarum L., Handbook of Energy Crops
Sugar Cane, NewCROP™, Purdue University
Sweet Future for Mungbean in Pakistan, World Vegetable Center
Sugar Cane Growers Cooperative of Florida ^{ext link}
The Sugar Association ^ext
link

Botanical Art

Older Material
Culture of Sugarcane for Sugar Production in Louisiana, 1964, USDA^pdf
Culture of Sugarcane for Sirup Production, 1961, USDA^pdf
Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.), 1958, USDA^pdf

List of Growers and Vendors

Bibliography

¹Baucum, L., et al. "Backyard Sugarcane." Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, SS-AGR-253, Aug. 1999, Rev. Oct. 2009, Archived, UFDC, ufdcimages.uflib.ufl.edu/IR/00/00/34/15/00001/SC05200.pdf. Accessed 25 Nov. 2019.
²Rott, P., et al. "Florida Crop/Pest Profile: Sugarcane." Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, PI-171, Original pub. Aug. 2008, Rev. May 2018, July 2022, and Dec. 2033, AskIFAS, edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pi207. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019, 30 Dec. 2023.
³Sandhu, Hardev S., and Robert Gilbert. "Production of Biofuel Crops in Florida: Sugarcane/Energy Cane." Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, SS-AGR-298, Original pub. Jan. 2008, Rev. Dec. 2017, and 2021, AskIFAS, edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ag303. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019.
⁴Baucum, L. E., and R. W. Rice. "An Overview of Florida Sugarcane." Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, SS-AGR-232, Original pub. July 1992, Rev. Aug. 2009, Archived, UFDC, ufdc.ufl.edu/IR00003414/00001?search=overview+=florida+=sugarcane. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019.
⁵Sandhu, Hardev S., et al. "Sugarcane Botany: A Brief View." Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, SS-AGR-234, Original pub. Aug. 1993, Rev. July 2019, AskIFAS, edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ag303. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019.
⁶Magness, J. R., et al. "Sugar cane." Food and feed crops of the United States. Interregional Research Project IR-4, IR Bul. 1, 1971, NewCROP™, hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/Crops/Sugar_cane.html. Accessed 27 Nov. 2019.
⁷"The Biology of Saccharum spp. (Sugarcane)." Office of the Gene Technology Regulator, V. 3, Dept. Health, Australian Gov't., May 2011,
ogtr.gov.au/internet/ogtr/publishing.nsf/Content/biologysugarcane-toc/. Accessed 27 Nov. 2019.
⁸"Taxon: Saccharum officinarum L." USDA, Agricultural Research Service, National Plant Germplasm System, Germplasm Resources Information Network (GRIN-Taxonomy), National Germplasm Resources Laboratory, Beltsville, Maryland, 2019, U.S. National Plant Germplasm System, npgsweb.ars-grin.gov/gringlobal/taxonomydetail.aspx?id=32617. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
⁹Duke, James A. "Saccharum officinarum L." Handbook of Energy Crops, Purdue University, Center for New Crops and Plant Products, unpublished, 1983, NewCROP™, hort.purdue.edu/newcrop/duke_energy/Saccharum_officinarum.html. Accessed 27 Nov. 2019.
¹⁰"Cane Juice." FoodData Central, U.S. Department of Agriculture, fdc.nal.usda.gov/fdc-app.html#/food-details/600597/nutrients. Accessed 11 Dec. 2019.

Videos

^v1"How Do You Get Sugar From Sugar Cane?" The Sugar Association, www.sugar.org/resources/video/?ultibox=1. Accessed 28 Dec. 2019.
^v2 "Growing and Processing." Sugar Cane Growers Cooperative of Florida, www.sugarcaneleague.org/. Accessed 2 Nov. 2019.
^v3"Sugarcane Harvest in the Everglades Agricultural Area." Conservation Technology Information Center (CTIC), www.ctic.org/resource_display/?id=985. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019.

Photographs

Fig. ¹"Sugarcane and bowl of refined sugar." Wikipedia, 16 July 2009, (CC BY 3.0), en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Sugarcane#/media/File:CSIRO_ScienceImage_10529_Sugarcane_and_bowl_of_sugar.jpg. Accessed 9 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ²Vanderhoff, Ron. "Sugarcane Saccharum officinarum, Orange, California, USA." iNaturalist, Reseach Grade Observation, 14 Nov. 2019, (CC BY-NC 4.0), inaturalist.org/photos/56305493. Accessed 8 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ³Shine, James M. Jr. "Sugarcane flowers." An Overview of Florida Sugarcane, Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, SS-AGR-232, Original pub. July 1992, Rev. Aug. 2009, Archived, UFDC, ufdc.ufl.edu/IR00003414/00001?search=overview+=florida+=sugarcane. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019.
Fig. ⁴Valke, Dinesh. "Poaceae (formerly and, also known as Gramineae; grass family). Saccharum officinarum. Thane, India." Commons Wikimedia, via Flickr, (CC BY-SA 2.0), commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Saccharum_officinarum_(4397531278).jpg. Accessed 10 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ^{5,11,14,23,24}Jackson, K. "Sugarcane series." 2019, www.growables.org.
Fig. ^6,7,8,9,10"Sugarcane (Saccharum officinarum L.)." Agriculture Handbook, Agricultural Research Service, US Dept. Agriculture, No. 122, Jan. 1958, naldc-legacy.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id=CAT87208934&content=PDF. Accessed 28 Nov. 2019.
Fig. ¹²Starr, Forest, and Kim. "Saccharum officinarum (Ko, sugarcane). With tassles, Haliimaile, Maui, Hawaii." Starr Environmental, 13 Dec. 2005, (CC BY 4.0), starrenvironmental.com/images/image/?q=24732363212. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ¹³Hitchcock, A.S. (rev. A. Chase). "Saccharum officinarum L. - sugarcane." Manual of the grasses of the United States, USDA Miscellaneous Publication No. 200, Washington, DC. 1950, National Plant Data Team, Greensboro, NC 27401-4901 USA., USDA, NRCS, 2019, The PLANTS Database, plants.usda.gov. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ¹⁵Starr, Forest, and Kim. "Saccharum officinarum (Ko, sugarcane). Hawaiian variety 'Pilimai', Hawea Pl Olinda, Maui, Hawaii." Starr Environmental, 12 Sept. 2016, (CC BY 4.0), starrenvironmental.comimages/image/?q=29587430961. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ¹⁶Starr, Forest, and Kim. "Saccharum officinarum (Ko, sugarcane). Hawaiian variety 'Pilimai', Maui Nui Botanical Garden Kahului, Maui, Hawaii." Starr Environmental, 12 Sept. 2016, (CC BY 4.0), starrenvironmental.com/images/image/?q=29668789705. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ¹⁷Starr, Forest, and Kim. "Saccharum officinarum (Ko, sugarcane). Hawaiian variety 'Honuaula' dark red stems Maui Nui Botanical Garden Kahului, Maui, Hawaii." Starr Environmental, 12 Sept. 2016, (CC BY 4.0), starrenvironmental.com/images/image/?q=29587391121. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ¹⁸Starr, Forest, and Kim. "Saccharum officinarum (Ko, sugarcane). Hawaiian variety 'Iliopua', Hawea Pl Olinda, Maui, Hawaii." Starr Environmental, 12 Sept. 2016, (CC BY 4.0), starrenvironmental.com/images/image/?q=24596175240. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ¹⁹Starr, Forest, and Kim. "Saccharum officinarum (Ko, sugarcane). Hawaiian variety 'Iliopua' yellow green stems good for sugar chewing, Maui Nui Botanical Garden Kahului, Maui, Hawaii." Starr Environmental, 12 Sept. 2016, (CC BY 4.0), starrenvironmental.com/images/image/?q=29557748742. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ²⁰Starr, Forest, and Kim. "Saccharum officinarum (Ko, sugarcane). Hawaiian variety 'Pakaweli', Hawea Pl Olinda, Maui, Hawaii." Starr Environmental, 12 Sept. 2016, (CC BY 4.0), starrenvironmental.com/images/image/?q=29557748742. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ²¹Starr, Forest, and Kim. "Saccharum officinarum (Ko, sugarcane). Hawaiian variety 'Kea', Maui Nui Botanical Garden Kahului, Maui, Hawaii." Starr Environmental, 12 Sept. 2016, (CC BY 4.0), starrenvironmental.com/images/image/?q=29668741965. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ²²Starr, Forest, and Kim. "Saccharum officinarum (Ko, sugarcane). Maui Nui Botanical Garden, Maui, Hawaii." Starr Environmental, 3 Mar. 2005, (CC BY 4.0), starrenvironmental.com/images/image/?q=24621999492. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ²⁵Swanson, Stewart. "Sugarcane stalks in a furrow before being covered with soil." Florida Crop/Pest Profile: Sugarcane, Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, PI-171, Original pub. Aug. 2008, Rev. May 2018, AskIFAS, edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pi207. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019.
Fig. ²⁶Starr, Forest, and Kim. "Saccharum officinarum (Ko, sugarcane). Hawai'ian varieties ready to plant Oliopua Pakaweli Pilimai Honuaula
Hawea Pl Olinda, Maui, Hawai'i." Starr Environmental, 12 Sept. 2016, (CC BY 4.0), starrenvironmental.com/images/image/?q=29587423821. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ²⁷Davidson, Wayne. "'CPCL 97-2730' at early growth in sandy soil. Sugarcane Cultivars Descriptive Fact Sheet: 'CPCL 97-2730' and 'CPCL 00-4111'." Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, SS-AGR-414, Original pub. May 2017. AskIFAS, edis.ifas.ufl.edu/sc103. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019.
Fig. ²⁸"Diagram of part of a sugarcane stool. Culture of Sugarcane for Sirup Production." Agriculture Handbook, No. 209, Agricultural Research Service, US Dept. Agriculture, Dec. 1961, naldc-legacy.nal.usda.gov/naldc/download.xhtml?id=CAT87208446&content=PDF. Accessed 28 Nov. 2019.
Fig. ²⁹Sandhu, H. S., et al. "Sugarcane Cultivar CP 78-1628 Descriptive Fact Sheet." Horticultural Sciences Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, SS-AGR-117, Original pub. Dec. 2001, Rev. May 2015 and July 2018, AskIFAS, edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ag132. Accessed 10 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ³⁰Starr, Forest, and Kim. "Saccharum officinarum (Ko, sugarcane). Hawaiian variety Iliopua with Kim and Tamara, Maui Nui Botanical Garden Kahului, Maui, Hawaii." Starr Environmental, 12 Sept. 2016, (CC BY 4.0), starrenvironmental.com/images/image/?q=29668796895. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ³¹"Sugarcane/energy cane field." Production of Biofuel Crops in Florida: Sugarcane/Energy Cane, Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, SS-AGR-298, Original pub. Jan. 2008, Rev. Dec. 2017, AskIFAS, edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ag303. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019.
Fig. ³²Rott, Philippe. "Sugarcane field in Belle Glade, Florida." Florida Crop/Pest Profile: Sugarcane, Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, PI-171, Original pub. Aug. 2008, Rev. May 2018, AskIFAS, edis.ifas.ufl.edu/pi207. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019.
Fig. ³³Rainbolt, Curtis. "Sugarcane/energy cane field." Production of Biofuel Crops in Florida: Sugarcane/Energy Cane, Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, SS-AGR-298, Original pub. Jan. 2008, Rev. Dec. 2017, AskIFAS, edis.ifas.ufl.edu/ag303. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019.
Fig. ³⁴Shine, James M. Jr. "Aerial view of commercial sugarcane fields." An Overview of Florida Sugarcane, Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, SS-AGR-232, Original pub. July 1992, Rev. Aug. 2009, Archived, UFDC, ufdc.ufl.edu/IR00003414/00001?search=overview+=florida+=sugarcane. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019.
Fig. ³⁵Rice, Ronald W. "Cattle egrets (Bubulcus ibis) forage for insects and soil grubs during a pause in a sugarcane harvest operation in fields west of Clewiston, FL." An Overview of Florida Sugarcane, Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, SS-AGR-232, Original pub. July 1992, Rev. Aug. 2009, Archived, UFDC, ufdc.ufl.edu/IR00003414/00001?search=overview+=florida+=sugarcane. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019.
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Fig. ³⁷Robbins, Idan. "Sugar canes harvested by women in Hòa Bình province, Vietnam.” Wikimedia Commons, 13 Apr. 2014, (CC BY-SA 4.0), commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Woman_collecting_sugar_canes_in_Vietnam.jpg. Accessed 8 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ³⁸BM10777. "Rails-track-boxcar-wagon." Pixabay, 20 Oct. 2012, Public Domain, pixabay.com/photos/rails-track-boxcar-wagon-185773/. Accessed 7 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ³⁹Zamora, Eric. "Raw sugar being stored before refining." Florida Crop/Pest Profile: Sugarcane, Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, PI-171, Original pub. Aug. 2008, Rev. May 2018, AskIFAS, edis.ifas.ufl.edu /pi207. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019.
Fig. ⁴⁰Vidurmayor. "Sugarcane Juice Stall.” Wikimedia Commons, 27 Apr. 2013, (CC BY-SA 4.0), commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sugarcane_Juice_Stall.jpg. Accessed 8 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁴¹Jeevan. "sugar-cane-man-machine-punjab." Pixabay, 26 Nov. 2015, Public Domain, pixabay.com/photos/sugar-cane-man-machine-punjab-1112800/. Accessed 7 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁴²hoeldino. "Cuba-vinales-sugar-cane-press-sugar." Pixabay, Apr. 14, 2017, Public Domain, pixabay.com/photos/cuba-vinales-sugar-cane-press-sugar-2260548/. Accessed 7 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁴³Mir ripon. "Molasses made from the sugarcane juice of the village.” Wikimedia Commons, 12 Nov. 2014, (CC BY-SA 4.0), commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sugarcane_made_of_molasses_kumarkhali,kusstia,dhaka,bangladesh.jpg. Accessed 8 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁴⁴94932. "Hawaii-kauai-sugar-mill-abandoned." Pixabay, 26 Feb. 2016, Public Domain, pixabay.com/photos/hawaii-kauai-sugar-mill-abandoned-240301/. Accessed 7 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁴⁵Daderot. "Sugarcane on the bridge over Jinjiang River - Hebin Road to Wangjiang Road - Chengdu, Sichuan, China.” 25 Dec. 2015, Wikimedia Commons, (CC0 1.0), commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sugarcane_on_the_bridge_over_Jinjiang_River_-_Hebin_Road_to_Wangjiang_Road_-_Chengdu,_China_-_DSC05687.jpg. Accessed 8 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁴⁶Judgefloro. "A float in the Aringay Festival depicting a giant basi (tapayan), Philippines." Wikipedia, 22 Feb. 2014, Public Domain, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Basi#/media/File:FvfNaguilanLaUnion0260_16.JPG. Accessed 10 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁴⁷ Kitap, Efes. "Candy." 4 Sept. 2016, Pixabay, Public Domain, pixabay.com/photos/candy-sugar-sweet-nibble-food-1666049/. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁴⁸Yusof, Tafilah. "Sugar Brown Sugar." Pixabay, 13 Sept. 2016, Public Domain, pixabay.com/photos/sugar-brown-sugar-healthy-brown-973899/. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁴⁹Maari, Thamizhpparithi. "Sugarcane Jaggery.” Wikimedia Commons, 19 May 2015, (CC BY-SA 4.0), commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sugarcane_Jaggery.jpg. Accessed 8 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁵⁰DromoTetteh. "Nicely peeled and cut sugarcane, packed in transparent polythene, Ghana.” Wikimedia Commons, 1 Nov. 2014, (CC BY-SA 4.0), commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SUGAR_CANE_001.jpg. Accessed 8 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁵¹Maxmann. "Sugar lumps." 12 Jan. 2019, Pixabay, Public Domain, pixabay.com/photos/sugar-sugar-lumps-granulated-sugar-3982976/. Accessed 6 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁵²McBrien, Chris. "Sugar Cane Pieces." Commons Wikimedia, via Flickr, 16 Feb. 2007, (CC BY-SA 2.0), commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sugar_Cane_Pieces_(3232149734).jpg. Accessed 11 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁵³Badagnani. "Organically produced blackstrap molasses produced in Paraguay." Wikipedia, 27 May 2008, (CC BY-SA 3.0), GNU 1.2, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molasses#/media/File:Blackstrapmolasses.JPG. Accessed 10 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁵⁴Miers, J. "Sugar Cane Juice, Baños, Ecuador” Wikimedia Commons, 20 July 2010, (CC BY-SA 3.0), commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Jugo_de_Cana.jpg. Accessed 8 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁵⁵Sandstein. "Sirup vom Sirupier de Berne." Wikipedia, 30 Jan. 2011, (CC BY-SA 3.0), en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Syrup. Accessed 10 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁵⁶Dohrendorf, Thomas. "Several brands of cachaça (distilled spirit made from fermented sugarcane juice)." Wikipedia, via de.wikipedia, 28 Feb. 2005, (CC BY-SA 3.0), GNU 1.2, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Cachaça#/media/File:Cachaca.JPG. Accessed 10 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁵⁷Ganlad. "Bottled Sugarcane juice.” Wikimedia Commons, 6 Nov. 2015, (CC BY-SA 4.0), Image cropped, commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:SugarcaneJuice_Raw_front.jpg. Accessed 8 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁵⁸Rupika08. "Sugarcane juice is the juice extracted from pressed sugarcane. It is served, often cold, and sometimes with other ingredients such as a squeeze of lemon or lime, pineapple, passionfruit, ginger or ice.” Wikimedia Commons, 27 Apr. 2015, (CC BY-SA 4.0), commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Sugarcane_juice.jpg. Accessed 8 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁵⁹Ortiz, Mario Roberto Duran. "Dual-fuel gas station at Sao Paulo, Brazil. Alcohol (ethanol) and gasoline." Wikimedia Commons, 27 Apr. 2008, (CC BY 3.0), commons.wikimedia.org/w/index.php?curid=3988176. Accessed 10 Dec. 2019.
Fig. ⁶⁰"Occurrence of Saccharum L. in the United States, indicated by green areas of map." The PLANTS Database, plants.usda.gov/java/profile?symbol=SACCH, Production of Biofuel Crops in Florida: Sugarcane/Energy Cane, Agronomy Dept., UF/IFAS Extension, SS-AGR-298, Original pub. Jan. 2008, Rev. Dec. 2017, AskIFAS, AskIFAS.ifas.ufl.edu/ag303. Accessed 26 Nov. 2019.

* UF/IFAS Assessment of Non-native Plants in Florida's Natural Areas
** The information provided above is not intended to be used as a guide for treatment of medical conditions using plants.

Published 12 Dec. 2019 KJ. Last update 23 Apr. 2024 LR